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Bonafinis Virginal

Not available for use in Recording Studios

On exhibit

Artifact TypeVirginal

Manufacturer Francesco Bonafinis instrument builder | 16th century

Manufacturer LocationItaly

Datec. 1560

This is currently the oldest artifact in the NMC’s collection and, aside from another polygonal virginal housed in New York’s Metropolitan Museum of Art, it’s the only instrument known to have been produced by Francesco Bonafinis. Designed to be a more portable version of the harpsichord, the virginal enjoyed great popularity in the 16th and 17th centuries. This particular virginal is notable for its unusual design: an inner case contains the sound-producing components, and a separate decorative outer case—repainted in the 19th century—houses the instrument.

Operation/FunctionThis particular artifact consists of an inner case that contains all of the sound-producing mechanisms of the instrument, and a separate decorative outer case meant simply to hold the inner case. The wood of the inner case is cypress (including soundboard, case, and bridge), and the keyboard contains a compass of C/E (short octave C) to c’’’. The lowest note on the keyboard, which appears as an E, is in fact a C pitch, the first sharp moving upward, which appears as an F-sharp, is in fact a D pitch, and the next sharp up, which appears as a G-sharp, is in fact an E pitch. The outer case includes a lid and, along with the seven Cabriole legs (legs shaped with two curves: an outward-facing upper curve and an inward-facing lower curve) to which it is attached via an ornate stretcher, is highly decorated in the neo-Rococo style. The decoration of the outer case is not original, and was re-painted at some point during the nineteenth century. Additionally, although the outer case is original in material, the legs that accompany it are not, and also date from the late nineteenth century. Originally, the instrument would have only consisted of the inner and outer cases; most early virginals did not have legs. The wood of the outer case was dated during appraisal by comparison to similar samples that had undergone a dendrochronology analysis: the youngest ring in the wood is from 1536, while the oldest dates to 1419, located on the nameplate. This wood also matches a sample that is used in a 1564 violin by Andrea Amati, currently housed in the Ashmolean Museum. The instrument has undergone some minor repair work, but remains relatively unchanged and in good, playable condition. The nameplate of the instrument reads “Doanusa Benisimis”, which is believed to have been a misreading of ‘Bonafinis.’ As such, the instrument is attributed to the Italian harpsichord builder, Francesco (also Franciscus) Bonafinis. An inscription on the baseboards of the outer case indicates that the instrument was built for the Duke of Urbino in the sixteenth century.Cultural SignificanceAlthough the harpsichord is historically recognized as the most well known of the plucked string keyboard instruments, the virginal held a similar reputation to the vertical piano in its being a smaller and more practical alternative to the larger and more complex grand piano. In comparison to other larger keyboard instruments of the era, such as the organ, the virginal was also the preferred instrument for many on account of its relative portability and compact size. Unlike the clavichord, another instrument recognized for its smaller size, the virginal was capable of projecting its tone to a far more substantial level. Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the virginal was the preferred domestic instrument in the “Low” countries of Italy and England, even more so than the harpsichord. Its sound was not as large as the harpsichord, which made it more suitable for use in the smaller spaces of the house. On account of their size, virginals were also easier to manufacture and therefore less expensive. That being said, it was typically more affluent families that would own several instruments, including usually both a virginal and clavichord. The harpsichord remained popular in the context of chamber and orchestral performance, as it was loud enough to hold its place among a group of instruments. The virginal was also a popular subject of contemporaneous paintings, which, pictured in the personal spaces of the artwork’s subject, helped depict the nature of domestic musical culture during the Renaissance and Baroque.Technological SignificanceAlthough succumbing to the piano late in the eighteenth century, instruments belonging to the harpsichord family are still today regarded as tonally and structurally intriguing on account of their unique plucking mechanism. The harpsichord, in its ability to alter its tone, split its voicing over the two manuals of double-manual instruments, and maintain a relatively loud volume, remained the dominant keyboard instrument of the Baroque era. When the piano emerged in 1700, however, it brought with it a more refined clavichord mechanism that enabled the instrument to project its tone. Unlike the harpsichord, the clavichord employs a striking mechanism that attaches small pieces of metal called tangents to the back end of the keys: when a key is depressed, the back end is lifted and the tangent hits the string, causing it to vibrate. Since there is no other mechanism separating the key from the tangent, however, the difficulty with the clavichord lies in the fact that the tangent remains in contact with the string for as long as the player holds down the key. As a result, the tangent dampens the vibrations in the strings, preventing them from projecting. That being said, since the touch of the key is directly correspondent with the movement of the tangent, it is possible for the player of the clavichord to produce tones that vary in dynamic expression; by hitting the key with minimal force, a quieter sound is produced, and by hitting the key with a greater force, louder tones are achieved. Thus, although the clavichord was more expressive than the harpsichord, its tone was, overall, too quiet in comparison and the instrument was largely rendered inappropriate for public performance. The inventor of the piano, Italian builder Bartolomeo Cristofori, is crediting with the design of the single escapement action, which improved upon the key lever system of the clavichord by physically detaching the key from the tangent, or hammer as they are called in pianos. When a key is depressed on Cristofori’s piano, the hammer is similarly pushed upward to strike the string, but then falls back to its resting position immediately afterward under its own weight, regardless of whether the key remains held down. Cristofori’s piano was also capable of producing the same types of expressive and dynamic variations as the clavichord. For the most part, the harpsichord was not capable of varying its dynamics – an unfortunate feature that is attributed to the plucking mechanism. A number of innovations were introduced into the instrument to attempt to overcome this difficulty, including: incorporating coupling mechanisms into double-manual instruments, which would enable the player to split the manuals into 8’ and 4’ sections, thereby producing tones of slightly varying amplitude as well as frequency; replacing the quill or bone plectra with ones made of leather – a practice first established by the French builder Pascal Taskin in 1768, which produced a slightly softer tone; introducing materials such as silk and silver into the instrument’s steel and brass strings, again, so as to produce somewhat softer tones; and, retrofitting the lid of the instrument with moveable slats that would allow the player to make active changes to the projected amplitude. In the end, these innovations proved ineffectual, and the hammering system of the piano, capable of natural subtleties and variations that are a direct result of the player’s touch, emerged as the more sophisticated mechanism at the end of the eighteenth century. The organ, though also considered an early keyboard instrument, is often placed into its own category of instruments, and has been continuously refined over the centuries to allow the player a great many number of variations in tone, timbre, and amplitude. The harpsichord also suffered further practical issues, one of which stems from the manner in which the jacks mute the strings after the key is released. When the key is released, the jack falls back into its resting position and a piece of felt placed at the top of the jack serves to dampen the vibrations of the strings. Unless a key is held down for a sufficient amount of time, which is not generally feasible in common performance practice, the jack mutes the string somewhat prematurely, resulting in a tone that feels roughly cut. On account of its size and complexity, the harpsichord was usually considered the central figure of the harpsichord family. The virginal, which is believed to have predated the harpsichord, is generally recognized as a smaller, more compacted version of the harpsichord; in this sense, it is not unlike the square or vertical piano in its relation to the larger and more complex grand piano. The virginal itself is characterized as having one of two keyboard orientations, making it either in the form of a spinet virginal, or in the form of a muselar virginal. Each orientation serves to alter the sound of the virginal in slight and subtle ways. The ‘spinet’ virginal is considered the standard orientation, with the keyboard positioned closer to the left side of the instrument. In this position, the strings are plucked at one end just before the bridge, in much the same manner as the harpsichord and most other acoustic instruments that employ a bridge. A greater harmonic variance in the tone is produced in these instruments on account of the end of the string producing upper harmonics when activated. The ‘muselar’ virginal, however, positions the keyboard closer to the middle or right side of the instrument, away from the bridge. In this arrangement, an area closer to the center of the strings (at approximately one-third the sounding length of the string) is plucked, resulting in a warm, resonant tone that isolates more of the fundamental frequency, and less of any associated upper harmonics. Placing the keyboard farther from the bridge, as the muselar does, results in greater amplification by the sound box (essentially, the hollow wooden case in which the instrument sits), producing a deeper tone than would occur in the spinet virginal. Moreover, with the plucking mechanism placed nearer to the centre of the soundboard, the muselar virginal also amplifies the sounds of the mechanism itself, which is regarded as the major drawback of the orientation. The orientation of the keyboard is the primary factor in determining the sound produced by any particular virginal, as it affects both the location of the jacks in relation to the soundboard, and the position at which the strings are plucked, the latter of which will produce varying amounts of harmonics in addition to the fundamental. Unlike the harpsichord, in which one end of the strings are attached directly to tuning pins, both ends of the virginal’s strings are attached directly to the soundboard, giving it a more unique tone. In addition to the virginal, several other smaller variations of the harpsichord were designed. The next most common variation is the spinet, which is not to be confused with the spinet virginal. The spinet is an instrument that lies somewhere in between the harpsichord and the virginal: it features one bent side, as in the manner of the harpsichord, but its keyboard is also placed along the longest side of the body, typically closer to the left side. The strings of the spinet run at approximately a 30-degree angle to the keys, and are grouped in pairs, with two jacks placed in the space in between, facing either side. This is done because, being strung at an angle, the strings are too close together for an individual jack to fit in the space in between. Thus, by placing two strings closer together, a large space is made in between each pair, and the two jacks may be placed side by side, facing opposite directions. The spinet is regarded as having a feel more akin to the harpsichord, however due to the orthogonal stringing, the spinet loses much of its bass tones. The double virginal, or virginals, as it was more commonly called, is another variation of the virginal that consists of two separate instruments merged within one case. The “mother” virginal, consisting of an 8’ set of strings, was oriented as a muselar, with the keyboard positioned on the player’s right hand side. On the left hand side of the instrument was a small drawer for a second virginal containing a 4’ set of strings. This virginal, often referred to as the “child”, could either be played on its own, or it could be removed from its drawer and sat on top of the “mother”, thus producing a double-manual virginal in which both the 8’ and 4’ sets of strings could be activated from the “mother” manual. The 8’ arrangement of strings was standard in most virginals, however an independent series of instruments that employed only a 4’ set of strings were also produced. These instruments, which were otherwise identical to the rectangular spinet virginal, were referred to as ottavino (pl. ottavini), which derives from the Italian for ‘octave’ and is named in recognition of the fact that the 4’ ottavino is pitched at exactly one octave higher than the 8’ virginal. Unlike most virginals, in which the keyboard is recessed into the case, the keyboard of the ottavino emerges from the case. The ottavino also lacks a protective lid, and, like most early virginals, was not built with legs. Due to its small size, the ottavino remained a popular domestic instrument, well suited for composing and practicing in one’s home. Another variation of the harpsichord came in the form of the clavicytherium, which, not unlike the vertical piano, orients its strings and soundboard vertically instead of laterally. As in the vertical piano, the clavicytherium was designed so as to provide a space-saving alternative. Since both instruments are unable to incorporate gravity into their action, their mechanism tends to be more complex than that of their laterally oriented counterparts. Yet another variation came in the form of the archicembalo, which was first constructed in the sixteenth century with a unique keyboard design that was capable of accommodating different tuning systems. A very small number of pedal harpsichords were also built prior to the eighteenth century, and included another set of strings underneath the primary disposition that were controlled with the player’s feet via a series of pedals. No known examples of this instrument currently exist. An instrument known as the tangent piano also emerged briefly, incorporated the shape of the harpsichord with the mechanism of the clavichord. This instrument was not produced in large numbers, and was also eclipsed by the piano, which substantially modified the clavichord mechanism. In the late nineteenth century, a number of piano builders, most notably the French firms of Érard and Pleyel began reproducing harpsichords, incorporated techniques and materials borrowed from piano building. These instruments came to be known as “revival” harpsichords and, along with the historically informed instruments that arose in the mid twentieth century, which based their designs on historical models and documents, were in popular use throughout the twentieth century. Some modern harpsichords are built with a transposition mechanism that allowed the player to shift the keyboard so as to alter the A pitch (i.e. 440 Hz versus 415 Hz, etc.). Both the harpsichord and the virginal find their origins in the psaltery, a medieval plucked stringed instrument that was modified at some point during the mid fifteenth century to incorporate a keyboard for controlling the plucking action. The foremost producers of harpsichords, virginals, and spinets during the late Renaissance and Baroque periods were based primarily in the regions of Italy, England, France, Germany, and Flanders, an area that encompasses modern day Belgium and The Netherlands. The spinet and the virginal are understood to have first appeared in Italy in the early sixteenth century, followed by the first Flemish spinets and virginals. The virginal did not emerge in England until the early seventeenth century, pioneered by the English builder Gabriel Townsend. The spinet virginal was most common in Italy (where it was known as the spinetta), England, and Flanders (where it was known as the Dutch spinetten). Italian builders employed the polygonal shape more often than the rectangular, and often projected the keyboard from the case while the English and Flemish builders recessed the keyboard into the case, as was considered more standard practice for the instrument. Italian virginals also employed cypress wood as the primary construction material, while the virginals of Northern Europe employed heavier woods such as poplar. The spinet virginal was used all throughout Europe, however the muselar was featured only in Northern Europe, with its design was attributed to the famed Flemish builder, Johannes Ruckers (1578 – 1642). The Ruckers family of builders is also credited as the foremost producer of the mother and child virginals, and is considered the pioneer of the double-manual harpsichord. The Ruckers family was also pivotal in introducing a heavier construction into the instrument, so as to produce a more rounded tone. The Ruckers family, which later became the Ruckers-Couchet family, are historically recognized as one of the most esteemed manufacturers of harpsichords and virginals, and were based in Antwerp, which stood as the centre of harpsichord production during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Their instruments are unique in their designs, and are lauded for their innovative construction and high standard of quality. The first instrument builders who settled in Antwerp were believed to have arrived from Germany in the early sixteenth century. Although English virginals were influenced by the Flemish design, the majority of English builders placed the jacks of their spinet virginals slightly closer to the bridge than would have been practiced by the Flemish builders. Italian virginals and harpsichord are known for being relatively lighter in weight than those of the Flemish or English builders, also maintaining a relatively lower string tension. The Flemish harpsichords served as the model for most other builders throughout Europe, however each country introduced its own variations. For instance, Italian harpsichords were unique in their use of cypress wood for the case, soundboard, and bridge, and did not typically feature two manuals. German builders extended the instrument’s disposition to include a 16’ and 2’ set of strings. Other notable harpsichords builders include Pascal Taskin (1723 – 1793) of France, Jacob Kirkman (1710 – 1792) of England, and Vido Trasuntino (dates of birth and death unknown) of Italy.Users/PerformersEspecially throughout England, the term ‘virginal’ was often used to describe an array of stringed keyboard instruments that were not in fact virginals, such as harpsichords, spinets, and even clavichords. As such, those who were historically regarded as composers or performers of music for the virginal could very well have been referring to another instrument, likely the harpsichord. The virginal did not, generally speaking, have its own repertoire distinct from that of the harpsichord, as both instruments had a similar range that was capable of accommodating much of the standard keyboard music of the time. In fact, most composers of early keyboard music did not specify a particular instrument for which the music was optimal, except, perhaps, occasionally in the case of organs. As such, written keyboard music could be performed on virtually any keyboard instrument of the time, with the player making practical decisions about how to execute the piece based on the features offered by the instrument in use. Although a number of harpsichord and virginal players would have existed at the time, there is very little documented information about particular players. There is, however, a great deal of information regarding composers of early keyboard music, with the most well known group of composers belonging to the virginal school, which was based in England in the late Renaissance and included the famed composer William Byrd (about 1540 – 1623). Other composers of early keyboard music who lived on the European continent include François Couperin (France, 1668 – 1733), Jean-Philippe Rameau (France, 1683 – 1764), Domenico Scarlatti (born in Italy, lived in Spain, 1685 – 1757), Girolamo Frescobaldi (Italy, 1583 – 1643), Giovanni Picchi (Italy, 1571 – 1643), Samuel Scheidt (Germany, 1587 – 1684), Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (The Netherlands, 1562 – 1621) and, of course, Johann Sebastian Bach (Germany, 1685 – 1750). The English virginal school produced a number of “virginal books”, as they were called, which were simply collections of the popular keyboard music of the time, and were not necessarily intended for the virginal. These included The Mulliner Book, The Dublin Virginal Manuscript, Elizabeth Roger’s Virginal Book, The Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, My Ladye Nevells Booke, Clement Matchett’s Virginal Book, Parthenia, Priscilla Bunbury’s Virginal Book, Will Forster’s Virginal Book, and Anne Cromwell’s Virginal Book. The most famous of these is The Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, which served as the seminal source of keyboard music throughout the late Renaissance and early Baroque eras. Its name is derived from the Viscount Fitzwilliam, who bequeathed the manuscript to Cambridge University in 1816; the book is still housed within Cambridge’s Fitzwilliam Museum collection. As was the case with most collections of musical scores at the time, The Fitzwilliam Virginal Book is not attributed to any particular author, and contains in excess of 300 works from composers such as William Byrd, Peter Philips, Giles Farnaby, John Bull, and Jan Sweelinck. Parthenia, which was printed in 1612, was essentially the first published collection of music in England; prior to this, most collections of musical scores were simply manuscripts that circulated directly between performers.

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